Get the Full Book

This guide is one chapter from Fitness & Nutrition Programming for Beginners. If you enjoy reading it, consider purchasing the full book either as a PDF or paperback. Thanks!

Read More

Cardio: Fat Loss & Work Capacity

How to lose weight through cardiovascular exercise and an easy to follow, research-based guide for fat loss programming.

Breathe In. Breathe Out.

There’s no single best way to lose weight, but some methods are more effective than others.

The Fitstra fat loss strategy relies on customized cardiovascular exercise that uses unique metabolic markers to create personalized workouts, and these sessions are designed to supplement an existing resistance training program. That’s a mouthful. Basically, I encourage everyone to add a little extra cardio to their current weight training routine. By looking at the science of fat loss, we can build exercise programs that provide realistic, sustainable, and healthy solutions to weight management regardless of age, sex, or exercise experience.

Because fat loss is primarily achieved through cardio within the context of exercise, this chapter focuses on the importance of breathing, assessing one’s own conditioning level, and burning the most amount of fat through aerobic and anaerobic exercise.

The following content will help you design an effective fat loss-cardio plan that can be added to any existing resistance training routine.

Registered Dietitians & Fat Loss

Before we get started, it’s important to stress the influence diet has on weight loss. Research shows that we can lose body fat through exercise alone, but a smart diet combined with physical activity significantly increases our rate of loss. This means you’ll be at a massive disadvantage if you don’t eat correctly. But what’s correct?

Effective diets vary from person to person, but all should promote healthy and sustainable weight loss progress, provide enough energy to easily perform daily activities, and allow us to live a normal life. We don’t want to be controlled by restrictive eating habits.

I recommend working with a registered dietitian (RD) during your weight loss process. The advice and detailed information you’ll receive from a qualified nutrition professional will be incredibly beneficial to your progress and overall health.

The Process of Fat Loss

After a month of hard work and self control, you’ve accomplished your goal and lost five pounds. By using a bioelectrical impedance scale to measure body fat percentage, you’re confident the loss in weight was almost all fat. Awesome. There’s now less of you than before. But where did those unwanted pounds go?

When our bodies use stored fat as a fuel source, triglycerides in fat cells are first broken down into free fatty acids (FFA) through a process called lipolysis. FFAs are then moved out of fat cells and eventually make their way into the mitochondria of muscles to be turned into energy (ATP) through beta oxidation. This oxygen dependent (aerobic) process of metabolizing fats into ATP produces water and carbon dioxide as a byproduct. From those five pounds of fat lost, 4.2 lbs (84%) of them were exhaled as carbon dioxide and the remaining 0.8 lbs (16%) were lost as water in urine and sweat. Through hard work and consistency, you converted solid fat into liquid and gas.

The stoichiometric formula for the oxidation of a common FFA is listed above. Notice that in order for the reaction to take place, oxygen must be present. Using this information, we can calculate that the oxidation of five pounds of fat requires us to breathe in almost 15 pounds of oxygen. Based on this sizable quantity of O2, it’s clear that our ability to burn fat is heavily tied to how well we can breathe and the efficiency of our aerobic energy system.

This means we should do intense cardio to breathe harder, right?

One small issue we face when programming for weight loss is our metabolic response to exercise intensity. As we workout harder and our heart rates increase beyond a certain point, we essentially stop using oxygen for energy metabolism and burn less fat despite a higher per minute caloric expenditure. High-intensity exercise like 200m sprints require a rapid fuel delivery system to maintain a constant supply of ATP to our muscles, faster than what fat oxidation can offer. Carbohydrates provide less energy than fats, but glucose and stored glycogen can be broken down almost immediately because they do not require oxygen to be metabolized. This metabolic pathway for carbohydrates is called anaerobic glycolysis.

Although we burn very little fat at higher intensities, a great fat loss program will utilize both low and high-intensity cardiovascular exercise and their corresponding fuel sources. But what cardiovascular exercise intensities are best for weight loss, and how much time should we spend performing each? To answer this question and maximize our fat burning potential, we need to learn about fuel utilization and the lactate threshold.

Fat Oxidation & Cardio Intensity

If you were to get on a treadmill, set the speed to 10 mph, and run for 15 minutes, you’d burn more calories per minute than if you set it to 6 mph for the same duration. After your 10 mph run, you’d be reduced to an exhausted, sweaty mess, but content with the effort because it burned a high number of calories. Unfortunately, that high-intensity cardio session you suffered through wasn’t ideal for fat loss.

In a laboratory setting, fat utilization is calculated by measuring the ratio of exhaled carbon dioxide to inhaled oxygen per breath. This measurement is the respiratory exchange ratio (RER). An RER of 1.0 indicates that 100% of fuel burned is from carbohydrates, a ratio of 0.7 is all fat, and 0.85 is an even mix of the two. As exercise intensity increases, we gradually shift from fat to carbs for energy. The 10 mph run from earlier burnt quite a few calories but it’s unlikely they were from stored fat.

After learning about RER and the relationship between exercise intensity and fat burn, you decide to change up your cardio tactics and try a different approach. The next day at the gym, you get back on the treadmill at an easy starting speed of 3 mph. A few minutes pass as you search for the right playlist on your phone, clear new notifications, and continue walking. After finding the right song, you get to work and increase the belt speed by 1 mph every two minutes until you reach 10 mph. You sustain this top speed of 10 mph for 30 seconds before stopping due to exhaustion.

How is this new cardio strategy different from the first run?

During the time it took you to find the perfect song, your body started producing lactate (a byproduct of anaerobic metabolism) and your RER rose as more stored carbohydrates were burned. Your RER probably never exceeded 0.85 during this time, meaning fat was your primary fuel source. With manageable lactate levels and a plentiful supply of stored aerobic energy (fat), your song selection walking pace could be sustained for hours without any difficulty. Lactate build up wasn’t a problem at this low level of exercise intensity because your body removed it at roughly the same rate it was produced.

Things changed as your speed increased. At some point between 3-10 mph (possibly around 7-8 mph), the manageable trickle of lactate turned into a flood and byproducts of anaerobic glycolysis (lactate, ammonia, and hydrogen ions) accumulated faster than they could be removed. RER grew significantly during this time and eventually reached 1.0, meaning nearly all energy was produced from the breakdown of carbohydrates. With metabolites built up in your muscles and the unlimited fuel supply for fat oxidation a thing of the past, you reached exercise failure a few minutes after crossing an invisible metabolic line. You were forced to stop running due to exhaustion.

The heart rate value associated with a sudden and exponential increase in lactate production during high-intensity exercise is the lactate threshold (LT). The lactate threshold is basically our upper limit of sustainable exercise. We can work for a really long time at heart rate intensities below LT, but once we exceed it and start to burn carbohydrates as a primary fuel source, the countdown timer to exhaustion begins.

So, how can we delay the transition from fat to carbohydrates and keep burning stored body fat as exercise intensity increases? The answer is high-intensity exercise.

Lactate thresholds vary from person to person due to differences in diet, training styles, conditioning levels, and genetics, but they can be modified through high-intensity exercise. Activity beyond LT burns a small amount of fat, but strategic implementation of high-intensity cardio can delay the onset of LT and shift lactate thresholds closer to our max heart rate. More room between our minimum heart rate and LT means we have a larger aerobic base and can expend more energy before reaching the carb burning RER zone of 1.0.

If we increase our LT through high-intensity exercise, we’ll have –

  • A larger aerobic heart rate range, resulting in more fat burned per minute at low to moderate exercise intensities.
  • A greater work capacity, providing faster recovery times from both resistance training and cardiovascular exercise.
  • An improved VO2max, leading to increased oxygen consumption and utilization. Better O2 usage means more fat oxidation during exercise and at rest.

All of these factors can help us lose weight significantly faster than diet alone. Plus, if you rely on a combination of diet and exercise for your weight loss progress instead of simply eating less, you’ll accidentally get into great cardiovascular shape as an added bonus.

Talking about metabolic thresholds and fuel utilization sure is fun, but it’s not that helpful if we don’t know how to apply these concepts practically. Let’s cover how to calculate LT and RER along with their specific applications to weight loss.

Accurately Determining LT & RER

The only truly accurate way to measure LT and RER is to have metabolic testing performed at either a local gym, hospital, or university. These tests are relatively short (1-2 hours) and not incredibly expensive ($150-400). If you have the ability to test, do it. The data provided is well worth the required time and financial cost of the assessment. This information will prove to be an invaluable asset to your weight loss programming.

If you don’t have access to a testing facility, don’t worry. We can still estimate LT and RER using two simple self-assessments. The information collected from these tests will not be as accurate as those performed in a carefully controlled professional setting, but can still be great data points for your cardio programming.

Estimating VT, LT, & RER

We now know that an increase in exercise intensity changes the gasses we exchange while breathing. The strong link between breathing, heart rate, oxidation of fats, and the anaerobic metabolism of carbohydrates allows us to estimate an RER of 0.85 (equal mix of fats and carbs for energy) and an RER of 1.0 (all carbs) with two simple tests. These two self-assessments are the ventilatory threshold (VT) and lactate threshold (LT) tests.

The heart rate values provided by VT and LT testing tell us what intensities to aim for during cardiovascular exercise. VT for aerobic cardio and LT for anaerobic. These metabolic points help us develop unique cardiovascular programs based on our individual needs, allowing us to target fat loss as efficiently as possible.

The first assessment is the ventilatory threshold test. As we increase exercise intensity, our ability to talk smoothly and without interruption decreases. For example, a conversation held while walking around the office with your coworker requires a very low level of physical exertion. You can walk and talk with no problem. However, if you two were to sprint for a few minutes outside in the parking lot, you’d be breathing so hard that getting out a single word would be nearly impossible. The ventilatory threshold test helps us find the midpoint between these two intensities and estimate an RER of 0.85. It measures observable changes in speech consistency to pinpoint specific metabolic changes and does not require maximum effort.

The goal of this assessment is to identify a steady state heart rate value where you can no longer talk comfortably or continuously during cardiovascular exercise. The marker for this test is speech that’s broken by large breaths every 3-5 words. You should be breathing harder than at rest, but the intensity should be sustainable for a very long time. The VT self-assessment should not be difficult to complete. You need a heart rate monitor and a treadmill to test your ventilatory threshold.

VT Self-Assessment

  1. Record your resting heart rate.
  2. Warm up with a walk or jog on the treadmill for five minutes at an intensity of roughly 4/10. Aim for an intensity difficult enough to cause a mild sweat.
  3. After warming up, get off the treadmill and relax for a few minutes until your heart rate has recovered to its resting level.
  4. Once recovered, start walking on the treadmill at 1.5 mph at an incline of 1%.
  5. Increase the speed by 0.5 mph every two minutes.
  6. During each two minute segment, recite any memorized paragraph that’s long enough for 20-30 seconds of continuous speaking. The Pledge of Allegiance is commonly used here. This oral section of the exam should begin roughly 90 seconds into all two minute periods.
  7. Closely monitor your heart rate during each two minute section. Note the number every 30 seconds.
  8. Continue to increase speed and recite your paragraph until you are no longer able to speak continuously due to breathing requirements. Record your heart rate. This is your estimated VT.
  9. Return the treadmill speed to an easy walking speed and cool down for one minute.
  10. Congratulations. You’ve completed the VT test.

Before reading about LT testing, please keep in mind that this assessment is optional for most people. It’s a tough test. LT heart rate data will greatly benefit your training, but it’s not absolutely necessary for fat loss success or for the workouts covered later. We’ll cover why this is optional in the Anaerobic Training section.

The LT test helps us identify a heart rate value associated with our lactate thresholds and an RER of 1.0. We test for LT by maintaining the highest possible level of cardiovascular intensity for 10 minutes. You need a heart rate monitor and a treadmill to test your lactate threshold.

LT Self-Assessment

  1. Record your resting heart rate.
  2. Warm up with a walk or jog on the treadmill for five minutes at an intensity of roughly 4/10. Aim for an intensity difficult enough to cause a mild sweat.
  3. After warming up, get off the treadmill and relax for a few minutes until your heart rate has recovered to its resting level.
  4. Get back on the treadmill and start walking at ~3.0 mph and an incline of 1%.
  5. Increase speed until you have reached what you estimate to be the highest level of intensity you can sustain for 10 minutes. Adjusting the speed early is OK but should be left to a consistent speed for as much of the run as possible. Your speed should be set by minute 2-3 and it should be held for the entire test duration. It’s important that you settle into a steady heart rate zone as early as possible. If you are able to increase speed after minute six, your results will not be accurate. You should be completely exhausted after the nine minute mark. This test sucks and is not meant for new exercisers or severely deconditioned individuals.
  6. Record your heart rate each minute during the last three minutes of the run. Use these three points to find your average heart rate. Multiply your average heart rate by 0.9. This is your estimated LT.
  7. Return the treadmill speed to an easy walking speed and cool down for one minute.
  8. Congratulations. You’ve completed the test for LT.

As you progress in conditioning, regular retesting is necessary. A great cardio program will improve your aerobic base, work capacity, lactate threshold, and fat burning capabilities. But if you never retest and consistently work below your optimal fat loss zones, changes in body composition will take much longer. The intensity of your fat loss cardio sessions should reflect your conditioning progress. The better shape you’re in, the higher your VT and LT will be. I suggest reassessments every 4-6 months for conditioned individuals, and every two months for the first six months for beginners.

Choose whichever assessment method is best for you, but please purchase a heart rate monitor for accurate data tracking. Whether it’s a nice watch with a digital display, or an IR light sensor band that connects to your phone through Bluetooth, get one.

Aerobic & Anaerobic Training For Fat Loss

Now that the potentially confusing part is behind us and we know our heart rate values, we can start programming for fat loss.

The overall concept here is pretty simple. We want to perform 1-2 hours of cardio per week. 80% of this time should be spent burning fat at VT (within 5-10 bpm of your target HR is fine), and the remaining 20% at or above LT through high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and/or lactate threshold training (LTT). This split allows us to maximize fat oxidation and increase our aerobic capacity. Thanks to a few pretty cool physiological adaptations, we can essentially train our bodies to clearly recognize which exercise conditions should burn fat for fuel versus those that should rely on carbohydrates.

To understand why this 80/20 split matters, let’s first discuss the aerobic side of things.

Aerobic conditioning directly targets fat loss through low-intensity, steady state (LISS) cardio. That’s primarily why we want to spend most of our time in this zone. But it also translates into increased oxidation efficiency during subsequent, non-cardio activities. Meaning, we get better at using stored body fat for energy when we’re mowing the yard, walking around the store, etc.

Regularly engaging in cardiovascular exercise teaches our type 1 muscle fibers how to be better at oxidizing fat. This is done by stimulating protein synthesis and increasing mitochondrial density. With more mitochondrial content in our muscles to metabolize fat, we also benefit from elevated post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). A higher EPOC means we burn more fat while at rest after a workout. All of these factors contribute to faster fat loss.

Because we know fat utilization decreases as exercise intensity increases, working as close to VT as possible during longer aerobic sessions is key. The heart rate value VT gives us a great compromise between maximum calorie burn per minute and peak fat utilization. This intensity level is also easy enough to be repeated multiple times throughout the week with minimal risk of CNS fatigue accumulation if sessions are capped at 20-30 minutes (not including resistance work) and limited to 4-5 days a week. Do your best to stick to these upper limits to avoid unnecessary strength and hypertrophy losses.

I recommend running and walking for the majority of your aerobic exercise. Most of us spend a ton of time indoors with work. Go outside if possible. Along with the potentially therapeutic scenery, propelling yourself forward with natural movement can be more effective than using a stationary machine due to the additional physical requirements. When we run outside, our bodies must continuously propel themselves forward (greater energy demand than on a treadmill) and use core musculature to remain upright (better posture and balance). There are no rails to lean on or belts to keep you moving as you walk through your neighborhood. You do the work. If you have the ability to be outdoors, do it. The aerobic exercise you choose should be one you enjoy and are able to repeat consistently. Stick to your target heart rate and do what’s best for you.

On the other side of the intensity spectrum, anaerobic workouts increase our lactate thresholds and give us a larger aerobic window to burn fat. By training the body to adapt to high-intensity exercise and delay the onset of lactate production, our heart rate value for VT increases. This shift in metabolic efficiency means our new VT still registers an RER of 0.85, but the total caloric burn per minute from fat has increased.

In the examples listed on the next page, you can see this concept illustrated in trained versus untrained individuals.

If the untrained person’s VT is 110 bpm and the trained exerciser has a VT of 130 bpm, it’s easy to see who can drop weight faster based on their individual metabolic targets. While both people will eventually reach their weight loss goals, the trained person is able to work harder and burn more fat calories per minute than the untrained (higher trained BPM but same RER). Training at and above our LT with high-intensity exercise improves our fat utilization capabilities at higher heart rates and results in faster weight loss during subsequent aerobic sessions.

Unlike aerobic exercise, anaerobic sessions should focus on short intervals lasting 0.5-4 minutes per set. These sets should utilize a 1:1-1:4 work to rest ratio, depending on segment intensity and individual conditioning levels. High speed running intervals are great for HIIT/LTT, but may not be ideal for some. Other modalities like cycling, kettlebell swings, burpees, air bikes, and rowers can be just as effective. Perform these in isolation or combine a few of your favorites into a circuit. As long as your heart rate stays at or above LT for the required time, feel free to experiment with different styles. Limit HIIT/LTT workouts to 3-4 times per week.

As mentioned earlier in the LT testing section, lactate threshold heart rate data is not absolutely necessary for success. You can estimate the workload needed. If an interval is two minutes long, you should be working at an intensity of at least 7/10 for the entire segment. Appropriate LT training intensities should be difficult and leave you spent at the end of each round. It may take a few workouts to accurately assess your limitations and capabilities. To be safe, start on the easier side of things and work your way up as you feel more comfortable and confident with new exercises. These sets should be pretty tough, but they’re also relatively short and only take up 20% of our total weekly cardio time. Work hard. Recover. Repeat.

Resistance Training & Weight Loss Examples

A quality fat loss cardio program is one that supplements an existing resistance training routine. Research shows that resistance training alone is an ineffective fat loss method, but lifting heavy things frequently does help maintain muscle mass that would normally be lost while on a weight-loss diet. Because of this, your weight training program should not indicate that you’re trying to lose weight. If you’re interested in being strong, focus on strength training. Follow a great hypertrophy plan if aesthetics are your thing. Lift to improve some aspect of resistance training, but don’t attempt to burn fat with high-rep and low-load sets. We want to maintain as much lean mass and strength as possible as the pounds drop. A good weight training routine is the most effective strategy for this. Lifting before a cardio session can also deplete glycogen stores, making fat loss focused cardiovascular exercise even more effective.

For novice lifters, it is entirely possible to lose fat, gain muscle, and increase strength at the same time. However, this concurrent progress will fade as you adapt to the demands of your new lifestyle. Depending on the timeline of your goals, it may be a great idea to take advantage of beginner gains and tackle all three aspects of fitness at once. Alternatively, you may want to simplify things and begin with only resistance training, then incorporate fat loss at a later time. Do what’s best for you.

For experienced lifters, it’s likely that slowed progress or some regression in size and strength will occur due to the negative (350-700 kcal/day) daily caloric balance and overall catabolic stress on the body. But because you aren’t crash dieting and are taking a smart approach to weight loss, don’t worry about it. Your weight loss period is temporary and you’ll catch back up leaner than before with a greater aerobic base.

Two example weeks that vary in style and total time are listed on the next page and should help with program design. Both examples take advantage of three different cardio styles, and target both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. These three styles are –

LISS
Low-intensity steady state

HIIT
High-intensity interval training

LHS
Low/high-intensity splits

The cardiovascular conditioning time structure for all Fitstra programs is read as –

Number of rounds [Aerobic (VT) minutes > Anaerobic (LT) minutes]

Using 1 [2 min > 1 min] as an example, one complete round of cardio is performed. The round contains a single, two minute aerobic bout that is immediately followed by a one minute high-intensity segment. The entire round totals three minutes of work.

4 [2 min > 1 min] is a two minute aerobic bout followed by a one minute high-intensity segment, performed for four rounds. This example totals 12 minutes.

In the first example listed above, four days of weights are combined with five days fat loss cardio. This week contains 98 minutes of aerobic activity and 22 minutes of anaerobic work, totaling 120 minutes. Monday begins with an alternating aerobic-to-anaerobic LHS style of cardio, Tuesday is pure HIIT, Wednesday and Thursday are both low-intensity steady state days, and Friday wraps things up with one last LHS workout. This more advanced schedule might not be feasible for some people due to the time commitment and total volume of work, but the format can easily be modified.

The second example follows a two day resistance split that is combined with five supplemental days of weight loss cardio, totaling 90 minutes. Like the 120 minute example, all three (LHS, LISS, & HIIT) styles of cardio are used here. The week kicks off with some LHS work on Monday, is pure aerobic LISS on Tuesday/Wednesday, HIIT on Thursday, and LHS on Friday. This specific example has 74 minutes of aerobic cardio and 16 minutes of anaerobic. Both weeks require an investment of time, but the strategy is pretty straightforward and doable for most people.
These simple outlines should help illustrate how easy it can be to incorporate effective cardiovascular exercise and resistance training into your week without spending hours in the gym. Like nearly every other aspect of fitness, there’s more than one way to approach this problem. Use the time, ratio, and frequency guidelines covered here as models to help build what’s best for you.

Strength & Hypertrophy Work Capacity

This chapter is all about weight loss, but a great cardio program does not exclusively benefit those seeking a change in body composition. Within the context of resistance training, aerobic and anaerobic cardio give us one major advantage over those who skip it. A greater work capacity.

Work capacity is the amount of exercise volume we can complete in a set amount of time (per set or per day) and how quickly we can recover from it. The different styles of cardiovascular exercise covered in this chapter stimulate mitochondrial protein synthesis which can increase our work capacity. An increase in muscular mitochondrial density means our ability to store, produce, and break down energy (ATP, creatine phosphate, & glycogen) is increased, the efficiency of all three energy systems (ATP-CP, glycolytic, and aerobic) is improved, and recovery time between sets/workouts is decreased. More muscular energy and quicker activity turnaround times result in faster muscle growth and greater strength gains.

If you have no interest in weight loss but want to maximize gains, you still need to be doing some amount of cardio. Keep the 80/20 percentage, cap the total max time to about one hour per week, and limit most cardio to lifting days. The example above follows these modifications for a total of 44 (36+8) minutes. Simple, effective, and easily variable. Train however you like, but emphasize cardiovascular health. No program is truly complete without it.

Final Thoughts

While there are a number of variables that contribute to weight loss, a smart cardio program should be our top exercise priority. By using a few key metabolic markers, we can easily design plans that supplement just about any weight training routine. When those plans are combined with healthy nutrition habits and smart resistance training, the pounds will drop. Weight loss is hard when you eat poorly and workout without structure. Make it easy.

Establish appropriate expectations for yourself by setting goals based on realistic timelines and your own dietary habits. Do your best to keep weight loss from turning into an obsession that controls your life. Small (1% or less) weekly reductions in total body weight can seem insignificant week to week, but they add up fast.

Work hard, stay consistent, and be sure to take the time to celebrate every small victory you experience throughout your weight loss journey.

Experiment by manipulating different variables. Find what works best for you. Share what you discover. Have fun.

References

Achten, J., & Jeukendrup, A. E. (2004). Optimizing fat oxidation through exercise and diet. Nutrition, 20(7-8), 716–727.

Agarwal S. K. (2012). Cardiovascular benefits of exercise. International journal of general medicine, 5, 541-5.

Brun, Jean & Malatesta, Davide & Sartorio, Alessandro. (2012). Maximal lipid oxidation during exercise: A target for individualizing endurance training in obesity and diabetes?. Journal of endocrinological investigation. 35. 686-91. 10.3275/8466.

Bryant, C. X., & Green, D. J. (2010). ACE personal trainer manual: The ultimate resource for fitness professionals. San Diego, CA: American Council on Exercise.

Boutcher, S. H. (2011). High-Intensity Intermittent Exercise and Fat Loss. Journal of Obesity, 2011, 1-10.

Cadore, E. L., Pinto, R. S., Bottaro, M., & Izquierdo, M. (2014). Strength and endurance training prescription in healthy and frail elderly. Aging and disease, 5(3), 183-95. doi:10.14336/AD.2014.0500183

Deyhle, M., Mermier, C., & Kravitz, L. (n.d.). The Physiology of Fat Loss. Retrieved January 22, 2019, from https://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article folder/physiologgfatloss.html

Diefenthaeler, Fernando, Sakugawa, Raphael Luiz, Dellagrana, Rodolfo André, Follmer, Bruno, Lemos, Elisa Cristina, & Campos, Wagner de. (2017). Is respiratory exchange ratio an alternative to estimate anaerobic threshold in trained runners?. Revista Brasileira de Cineantropometria & Desempenho Humano, 19(1), 108-117

DONNELLY, J. E., BLAIR, S. N., JAKICIC, J. M., MANORE, M. M., RANKIN, J. W., & SMITH, B. K. (2009). Appropriate Physical Activity Intervention Strategies for Weight Loss and Prevention of Weight Regain for Adults. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 41(2), 459–471.

DWYER, J., & BYBEE, R. (1983). Heart rate indices of the anaerobic threshold. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 15(1), 72-76.

Dyck, D. J., Miskovic, D., Code, L., Luiken, J. J., & Bonen, A. (2000). Endurance training increases FFA oxidation and reduces triacylglycerol utilization in contracting rat soleus. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 278(5).

Ekkekakis, P., & Lind, E. (2005). Exercise does not feel the same when you are overweight: the impact of self-selected and imposed intensity on affect and exertion. International Journal of Obesity, 30(4), 652–660.

Fyfe, J. J., Bishop, D. J., & Stepto, N. K. (2014). Interference between Concurrent Resistance and Endurance Exercise: Molecular Bases and the Role of Individual Training Variables. Sports Medicine, 44(6), 743–762.

Garrow, J.S. & Summerbell, C. (1995). Meta-analysis: Effect of exercise, with or without dieting, on the body composition of overweight subjects. European journal of clinical nutrition. 49. 1-10.

Gibala, M. (2009). Molecular responses to high-intensity interval exercise. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 34(3), 428-432.

Ghosh A. K. (2004). Anaerobic threshold: its concept and role in endurance sport. The Malaysian journal of medical sciences : MJMS, 11(1), 24-36.

HAGAN, R. D., UPTON, S. J., WONG, L., & WHITTAM, J. (1986). The effects of aerobic conditioning and/or caloric restriction in overweight men and women. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 18(1), 87-94.

Halvarsson, A., Dohrn, I. M., & Ståhle, A. (2015). Taking balance training for older adults one step further: the rationale for and a description of a proven balance training programme. Clinical rehabilitation, 29(5), 417-25.

Hultman, E. (1995). Fuel selection, muscle fibre. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 54(01), 107–121.

Jakicic, J. M., & Otto, A. D. (2005). Physical activity considerations for the treatment and prevention of obesity. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 82(1), 226S–229S.

Jakicic, J. M. (2008). Effect of Exercise on 24-Month Weight Loss Maintenance in Overweight Women. Archives of Internal Medicine, 168(14), 1550.

Karapetian, G., Engels, H., & Gretebeck, R. (2008). Use of Heart Rate Variability to Estimate LT and VT. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 29(08), 652–657.

Karp, J. (2009, Feb 01). The Three Metabolic Energy Systems. Retrieved from https://www.ideafit.com/fitness-library/the-three-metabolic-energy-systems

Kjertakov, M., Dalip, M., Hristovski, R., & Epstein, Y. (2016). Prediction of lactate threshold using the modified Conconi test in distance runners. Acta Physiologica Hungarica, 103(2), 262-270.

Koutlianos, N., Dimitros, E., Metaxas, T., Cansiz, M., Deligiannis, A., & Kouidi, E. (2013). Indirect estimation of VO2max in athletes by ACSM’s equation: valid or not?. Hippokratia, 17(2), 136-40.

Laforgia, J., Withers, R. T., & Gore, C. J. (2006). Effects of exercise intensity and duration on the excess post-exercise oxygen consumption. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24(12), 1247–1264.

Lazzer, S., Lafortuna, C., Busti, C., Galli, R., Agosti, F., & Sartorio, A. (2011). Effects of low- and high-intensity exercise training on body composition and substrate metabolism in obese adolescents. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 34(1), 45-52.

Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th edition. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2000. Section 16.1, Oxidation of Glucose and Fatty Acids to CO2. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21624/

Nutrition and Athletic Performance. (2016). Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 48(3), 543–568.

Mcgehee, J. C., Tanner, C. J., & Houmard, J. A. (2005). A Comparison of Methods for Estimating the Lactate Threshold. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 19(3), 553.

Meerman Ruben, Brown Andrew J. When somebody loses weight, where does the fat go? BMJ 2014; 349 :g7257

Methenitis S. (2018). A Brief Review on Concurrent Training: From Laboratory to the Field. Sports (Basel, Switzerland), 6(4), 127.

Mike, J. N., & Kravitz, L. (n.d.). Recovery in Training: The Essential Ingredient. Retrieved from https://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article folder/recoveryUNM.html

Mooses, M., Tippi, B., Mooses, K., Durussel, J., & Mäestu, J. (2015). Better economy in field running than on the treadmill: evidence from high-level distance runners. Biology of sport, 32(2), 155-9.

Nieman, D. (2008). Inactivity, exercise training and detraining, and plasma lipoproteins. STRRIDE: A randomized, controlled study of exercise intensity and amount. Yearbook of Sports Medicine, 2008, 133-134.

Patel, H., Alkhawam, H., Madanieh, R., Shah, N., Kosmas, C. E., & Vittorio, T. J. (2017). Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise training effects on the cardiovascular system. World journal of cardiology, 9(2), 134-138.

Péronnet, François & Massicotte, D. (1991). Péronnet F, Massicotte DTable of nonprotein respiratory quotient: an update. Can J Sport Sci 16:23-29. Canadian journal of sport sciences = Journal canadien des sciences du sport. 16. 23-9.

Pinet, B. M., Prud’homme, D., Gallant, C. A., & Boulay, P. (2008). Exercise Intensity Prescription in Obese Individuals. Obesity, 16(9), 2088–2095.

Ramos-Jiménez, A., Hernández-Torres, R. P., Torres-Durán, P. V., Romero-Gonzalez, J., Mascher, D., Posadas-Romero, C., & Juárez-Oropeza, M. A. (2008). The Respiratory Exchange Ratio is Associated with Fitness Indicators Both in Trained and Untrained Men: A Possible Application for People with Reduced Exercise Tolerance. Clinical medicine. Circulatory, respiratory and pulmonary medicine, 2, 1-9.

Robinson, S. L., Hattersley, J., Frost, G. S., Chambers, E. S., & Wallis, G. A. (2015). Maximal fat oxidation during exercise is positively associated with 24-hour fat oxidation and insulin sensitivity in young, healthy men. Journal of Applied Physiology, 118(11), 1415–1422.

Said, M. A., Abdelmoneem, M., Almaqhawi, A., Hamid Kotob, A. A., Alibrahim, M. C., & Bougmiza, I. (2018). Multidisciplinary approach to obesity: Aerobic or resistance physical exercise? Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness.

Saunders, P. U., Pyne, D. B., Telford, R. D., & Hawley, J. A. (2004). Factors Affecting Running Economy in Trained Distance Runners. Sports Medicine, 34(7), 465–485.

Schaar, B., Moos-Thiele, C., & Platen, P. (2010). Effects of Exercise, Diet, and a Combination of Exercise and Diet in Overweight and Obese Adults – A Meta-Analysis of the Data. The Open Sports Medicine Journal, 4(1), 17-28.

Schoenfeld, B., & Dawes, J. (2009). High-Intensity Interval Training: Applications for General Fitness Training. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 31(6), 44–46.

Solberg, G., Robstad, B., Skjønsberg, O. H., & Borchsenius, F. (2005). Respiratory gas exchange indices for estimating the anaerobic threshold. Journal of sports science & medicine, 4(1), 29-36.

Stokes, T., Hector, A. J., Morton, R. W., McGlory, C., & Phillips, S. M. (2018). Recent Perspectives Regarding the Role of Dietary Protein for the Promotion of Muscle Hypertrophy with Resistance Exercise Training. Nutrients, 10(2), 180.

Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 510–515, 581–613, 775–778. ISBN 0 7167 2009 4.

Talanian, J. L., Galloway, S. D. R., Heigenhauser, G. J. F., Bonen, A., & Spriet, L. L. (2007). Two weeks of high-intensity aerobic interval training increases the capacity for fat oxidation during exercise in women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 102(4), 1439–1447.

Thomas, K., Brownstein, C. G., Dent, J., Parker, P., Goodall, S., & Howatson, G. (2018). Neuromuscular Fatigue and Recovery after Heavy Resistance, Jump, and Sprint Training. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 1.

THOMAS, K., GOODALL, S., STONE, M., HOWATSON, G., GIBSON, A. S. C., & ANSLEY, L. (2015). Central and Peripheral Fatigue in Male Cyclists after 4-, 20-, and 40-km Time Trials. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 47(3), 537–546.

Tremblay, A., Simoneau, J.-A., & Bouchard, C. (1994). Impact of exercise intensity on body fatness and skeletal muscle metabolism. Metabolism, 43(7), 814–818.

van Wessel, T., de Haan, A., van der Laarse, W. J., & Jaspers, R. T. (2010). The muscle fiber type-fiber size paradox: hypertrophy or oxidative metabolism?. European journal of applied physiology, 110(4), 665-94.

Wang, Y., & Xu, D. (2017). Effects of aerobic exercise on lipids and lipoproteins. Lipids in health and disease, 16(1), 132.

Willis, L. H., Slentz, C. A., Bateman, L. A., Shields, A. T., Piner, L. W., Bales, C. W., … Kraus, W. E. (2012). Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults. Journal of Applied Physiology, 113(12), 1831–1837.

Zuhl, M., & Kravitz, L. (n.d.). HIIT vs Continuous Endurance Training: Battle of the Aerobic Titans. Retrieved from https://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article folder/HIITvsCardio.html